Working backward is hard: the SnackWell’s
Phenomenon
In the nineties, millions of people jumped on the SnackWell’s bandwagon.
Nabisco developed these devil’s food cookies as a leading product to take advantage of the now-discredited belief that fat, not sugar, makes you fat.
Foods made with less fat were, at the time, considered healthier. With the blessing of the U.S. government, companies swapped in sugar for fat as a flavoring ingredient. SnackWell’s came in a green package, the color associated with “low fat” and, therefore, “healthy”—like spinach!
For all those people trying to lose weight or make healthier snacking choices, SnackWell’s were a delicious godsend. SnackWell’s eaters bet their health on substituting these cookies for other types of snacks like, say, cashews, which are high in fat. You could ingest sugar-laden SnackWell’s by the box, because sugar wasn’t the enemy. Fat was the enemy, and the packaging screamed “LOW FAT!”
Of course, we know now that obesity rose significantly during the low- fat craze. (Michael Pollan used the phrase “SnackWell’s Phenomenon” in describing people increasing their consumption of something that has less of a bad ingredient.) As those SnackWell’s eaters gained weight, it wasn’t easy for them to figure out why. Should the weight gain be fielded into the skill bucket, used as feedback that their belief about the health value of SnackWell’s was inaccurate? Or was the weight gain due to bad luck, like a slow metabolism or something else that wasn’t their fault or at least didn’t have to do with their choice to eat SnackWell’s? If the weight gain got fielded into the luck bucket, it wouldn’t be a signal to alter the choice to eat SnackWell’s.
Looking back now, it seems obvious how the weight gain should have been fielded. But it is only obvious once you know that SnackWell’s are an unhealthy choice. We have the benefit of twenty years of new research, more and better-quality information about what causes weight gain. The folks on the low-fat bandwagon had only their weight gain to learn from.
The cards remained concealed.
Working backward from the way things turn out isn’t easy. We can get to the same health outcome (weight gain) by different routes. One person
might choose SnackWell’s; another might choose Oreos (also a Nabisco product, developed by the same person who invented SnackWell’s); a third might choose lentils and kale. If all three people gain weight, how can any of them figure it out for sure?
Outcomes don’t tell us what’s our fault and what isn’t, what we should take credit for and what we shouldn’t. Unlike in chess, we can’t simply work backward from the quality of the outcome to determine the quality of our beliefs or decisions. This makes learning from outcomes a pretty haphazard process. A negative outcome could be a signal to go in and examine our decision-making. That outcome could also be due to bad luck, unrelated to our decision, in which case treating that outcome as a signal to change future decisions would be a mistake. A good outcome could signal that we made a good decision. It could also mean that we got lucky, in which case we would be making a mistake to use that outcome as a signal to repeat that decision in the future.
When Nick the Greek won with a seven and a deuce, he fielded that outcome into the skill bucket, taking credit for his brilliant strategy. When he lost with that hand—a much more common occurrence—he wrote it off as bad luck. His fielding error meant he never questioned his beliefs, no matter how much he lost. We’re all like Nick the Greek sometimes.
Uncertainty—luck and hidden information—gave him the leeway to make fielding errors about why he was losing. We all face uncertainty. And we all make fielding errors.
Rats get tripped up by uncertainty in a way that should appear very familiar to us. Classical stimulus-response experiments have shown that the introduction of uncertainty drastically slows learning. When rats are trained on a fixed reward schedule (for example, a pellet for every tenth press of a lever), they learn pretty fast to press that lever for food. If you withdraw the reward, the lever-pressing behavior is quickly extinguished. The rats figure out that no more food is on its way.
But when you reward the rats on a variable or intermittent reinforcement schedule (a pellet that comes on average every tenth lever press), that introduces uncertainty. The average number of lever presses for the reward is the same, but the rat could get a reward on the next press or not for thirty presses. In other words, the rats are rewarded the way humans usually are: having no way to know with certainty what will happen on the